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CHAPTER VII.

THEORY OF FIRE.

In spite of the great advantages derived from the bayonet in battle, the fact is now incontestible that the efficiency of a body of infantry resides essentially in its accuracy of fire; and this is made only the more apparent from the recent improvements in firearms. A cool, well-directed fire from a body of men armed with the new rifle or rifle-musket, which is loaded with the same facility as the old musket, is sufficient to stop the advance of almost any kind of troops. But the very best disciplined men will, in time of battle, fire with precipitancy and at too great a distance; from which results a great loss of ammunition and of effect upon the enemy.

Target Practice.-- If instruction by target practice is of importance to well-drilled and disciplined troops, when opposed to troops of the same kind, its importance cannot be estimated when the quality of the troops becomes worse, and the opponents the Indians of our western country, nearly all of whom are well versed in the use of the rifle or bow and arrow, and dependent on them for their daily subsistence.

In the recent encounter with Indians of Col. Steptoe's command in Washington Territory, many of the men were armed with the old musketoon (a most indifferent arm), and very  soon expended all their ammunition in ineffectual fires against an enemy mounted on fleet horses, and armed partly with rifles, partly with bows and arrows, whose deadly shaft is shot by them with astonishing accuracy, and at a rate exceeding that at which an adept in its use can fire balls from a revolver. Charges of cavalry, with the sabre, however gallantly conducted and successful for a time, could not succeed against such an enemy; and a hasty retreat in the night was the only resort, to avoid annihilation.

In the subsequent expedition, the men were armed with rifles and rifled-muskets, and after a few weeks’ hasty drill attained such a confidence in their arms, that on the first encounter with the Indians the result proved very different.

Our service is perfectly devoid of any means of attaining proficiency in the use of arms of any kind, and the time will yet come, if some corrective is not applied, when this deficiency will result in a disaster vastly greater than the defeat of a handful of men in a distant territory.

Superiority in volunteer troops over regulars, when it does exist, is not found in those regiments recruited about our great cities, from men who never touched a, gun before in their lives; but in those made up of young men from the woods, who, from daily use of the rifle from their boyhood, know its power; and this knowledge it is, which in part, supplies the place of a discipline they do not possess, and makes them feel that with discipline they are invincible. In confirmation of these remarks, such regiments as the South Carolina and Mississippi, in the Mexican war, are confidently referred to; both were commanded by men, soldiers frown education and by profession.

To attain efficiency in the use of any arm, diligent and systematic practice is absolutely necessary; and this can only be obtained by establishing schools of instruction, like those at Vincennes, Saint Omer, Grenoble, and Toulouse, in France, from which, every year, officers and men well instructed in the principles of firing, may be sent out into the army at large end impart the same system and efficiency to it. An attempt is now being made to establish such a school, for the artillery, at Fort Monroe; but the necessity for a school for the infantry arm, is just as great and more immediately pressing. The results of such schools will far more than compensate for the cost, and withdrawal from active military service of a small number of men, by the greatly increased efficiency of the rest.

In the successful and oft-repeated repulse of cavalry charges by squares of infantry, the main dependence is not in the use of the bayonet, but in the close, well-directed fire, delivered as the horsemen approach.. This, breaking their formation and disorganizing their ranks, leaves them at the end of the charge with a wall of bayonets in their front, against which horses cannot be forced unless at full speed and supported by numbers behind. It is not pretended that a large body of compact horseman can not ride over a small square of infantry. To hold such a doctrine would be to deny the fundamental principles which govern the relation between force and resistance. But with anything like parity of numbers, cavalry cannot break squares of infantry, singly from the injury indicted before the shock takes place.

In order to become proficient in the use of firearms, a man must either learn the principle upon which his arm is constructed, as well as those governing the inflammation of powder and the passage of a projectile through the air; or he must, from long actual practice with the arm, understand the result of these principles. It is evident that a combination of the two will produce the best marksman in the shortest time.

The theory to be taught the marksman, will now be discussed.

Powder, when inflamed in a gun, developes a certain amount of elastic fluid, which escapes on that side where it meets with the least resistance, driving before it the projectile which is opposed to it.

Velocity is the space passed over by the projectile in a second of time. Its velocity, when it leaves the piece, is called the initial velocity.

The action of the powder, as has been before stated, is not instantaneous; and although the ball is less than 1/200th part of a second in going out of the piece, it receives its velocity by degrees. The velocity of the gas developed is very great, and has been estimated as high as between 9,000 and 10,000 feet. This great velocity causes the first gas produced to spread rapidly through the interstices of the grains, and inflame the entire charge. The time, taken for the entire combustion of each grain, although very short, is greater than that required for the inflammation, and depends on the size and consistency of the grains.

Since the inflammation takes place through the interstices of the grains, it follows that hard ramming, by packing the grains and diminishing the spaces, should reduce the velocity of the ball. The ramming should be so regulated as to place the ball well against the charge, and to have it as near as possible under the same circumstances at each shot.

When the cartridges have been a good deal knocked about, the dust formed by the crushed grains obstructs the interstices between the grains, and, the charge fuzing instead of exploding, the velocity of the ball is diminished.

Since the smallest grains burn quickest, it follows that for any given length of barrel, there will be more powder burnt and a greater effect produced as the grains are decreased in size. For this reason, fine sporting-powder gives, with equal weights, greater velocity than musket-powder; and this difference becomes the more marked as the length of the gun and the charge are decreased.

Powder loses force as the amount of moisture contained in it increases. Thus, the effect produced is less on a wet day than on a warm, dry one. Wet powder fuzes instead of exploding.

The initial velocity of the ball depends on-- the charge; the quality of the powder; the length of the gun; the size and density of the projectile; on the amount of windage, and on the size of the vent, especially in flint-lock guns.

With a given length of gun, and particular projectile, there is a maximum charge beyond which no increased velocity is obtained. This charge must be determined by experiment; though the charges used are generally less than the maximum, the rule generally laid down being, that as the velocity increases very slowly from a third of the weight of the shot up to the maximum, it is not advisable to use a greater charge than one-third, on account of the effect on the piece, the waste of powder, and the recoil. In this respect the modern improvements in small-arms are very marked; for whilst with the old musket one-fourth the weight of the bullet was used, with the rifled and altered musket we use but one-ninth or one-tenth.

The longer a gun is, the greater length of time is the projectile submitted to the accelerating action of the gases; but past a certain length, the shocks and friction experienced by the ball overcome its increase of velocity. Experiment shows there is no advantage in giving to the rifle-musket barrel a greater length than forty inches, which is accordingly adopted for the new arm.

Powder develops a greater force as it meets with more resistance to its expansion, so that the heavier a projectile, the greater becomes the quantity of motion it receives. Thus one projectile double the weight of another, receives of the same amount of powder a much greater velocity than one-half of that given to the lighter one. This fact enables us, in mortars, where the weight of the projectile is almost directly opposed to the action of the powder, to use a smaller charge than would otherwise be necessary.

With a given charge, projectiles with the least density, and smallest diameter, receive the greatest velocity; but out of the gun the advantage soon disappears, for such projectiles have the least power to overcome the resistance of the air. The charge necessary to produce a given velocity increases with the density of the projectile.

Recoil.-- As the powder acts in all directions, the bottom of the gun is thrown back with a greater force as the charge increase. The action on the piece is greater proportionally than on the ball, as the bottom of the bore presents a greater surface than the ball; and the gas continues to act on the gun after the ball has left it. The velocity impressed on the gun is called the recoil.

With the old musket, round bullet, and 120 grains of powder, the initial velocity of 1,426 ft. is obtained. The recoil of the gun, were it of the same weight as the bullet, would be greater, say 2,280 feet. That is, that the ball must have this velocity, in order that, striking the piece, it should produce the amount of recoil actually experienced by the gun. But velocities are inversely proportional to the masses moved; and the musket weighing about 166 times as much as the bullet, the retrograde velocity imparted will be only 2280/166= 13.73 ft., or about the same rate as a fast-trotting horse will travel. This velocity is so great that the marksman would be injured by the shock, if he did not hold the gun close against his shoulder, in such a way as to join the weight of his body to that of the piece. Supposing the resistance offered by him is ten times that offered by the gun, the recoil is reduced to 1.373 ft., which can be borne.

With the new rifle-musket, the ratio between the bullet and the piece is reduced to 138, the initial velocity to 963 ft., and the corresponding recoil to, say, 1,500 ft.; so that the actual recoil of the piece is reduced to 1500/138 = 10.87 ft. These numbers are not strictly accurate, but are near enough for our purpose.

The effect of the recoil on the marksman is farther diminished by the form given to the stock, which, being curved, decomposes the force of the blow. The same result is obtained in the pistol by the curve given to the stock, which changes the direct recoil into a movement of rotation around the hand.

The ball leaves the piece so rapidly, that the recoil has no appreciable effect upon its direction. This may be shown by placing a gun-barrel on each side of a square horizontal frame suspended by a, single wire; the second barrel being for the purpose of balancing the first. One of these barrels being pointed and fired, the ball has no appreciable deviation, although the frame revolves, from the effect of the recoil, rapidly around the suspending wire. The recoil, then, probably begins to be felt only alien the ball is nearly out of the piece; and as the recoil of a gun in a man's hands is sensibly in a right line, it follows that the recoil causes no appreciable deviations in firing from the shoulder.

In loading, the powder should be well shaken out of the paper, to prevent the formations of gas inside of this, which, forcing the paper against the sides of the bore, prevents it from leaving with the charge, and endangers the explosion of the next charge when loading, from the lighted paper. There is no danger of heating the piece by rapid firing so as to cause premature explosions, since long before it reaches 600 degrees,the temperature at which gunpowder inflames, it is entirely too hot to handle.

Theory of Fire .-- In the use of firearms, the three following lines, and their relation to each other must be known.

The point-blank range varies from several causes, the principal once b eing: The velocity of the ball; its diameter and weight; the inclination of the line of sight; and the shape of the piece. The velocity of the ball depends on the charge and the length of the piece.

The diameter and weight of the ball cause a certain amount of variation in the range. The larger and denser the ball, the more easily it overcomes the resistance of the air, preserves its velocity and accuracy of fire, compared with a smaller one of less density endowed with the same or even greater initial velocity. A leaden ball, for instance, will have a greater range and accuracy than an iron one.

The inclination of the line of sight with the horizontal produces very little change in the point-blank range, unless this inclination is very great. When a gun is fired at a great angle of elevation, the action of gravity being almost directly opposed to the force of impulsion, the trajectory is shortened and the point-blank range diminished. The contrary is the case when the piece is fired under a great angle of depression, as gravity then acts with the impulsive force, and lengthens the trajectory.

Experiment shows that for angles within 15º above or below the horizontal, the variations in the point-blank ranges- may bc neglected, and the trajectory considered as constant. Hence, by fixing a gun in position, and varying the inclination of the line of sight, within these limits we get the same point-blanks which would be obtained by varying the position of the piece each time in order to make the line of sight horizontal.

Hence, it follows that to strike an object elevated or depressed 15 degrees above or below the axis of the gun, the piece is aimed exactly as if on the same level with the object. The greater the difference between the diameters of the breech and muzzle, the greater will be the angle of sight, B E D = X E G (Fig. 158), and the farther removed will the point-blank be. Within a certain angle, when the points E' and G are united, that is, the line of sight becomes tangent to the trajectory, there is no point-blank, and none, of course, when this line becomes parallel to the axis (as is the case in our mortars), or when it diverges from the axis.

In the same kind of piece the form is almost identically the same; the angle of sight then remains the same; the charges and balls are constant; and the habitual angles of elevation of the line of sight are comprised between + or-15º. The point-blank and trajectory may, therefore, be considered as practically invariable. There is, then, a constant relation existing between the line of sight and trajectory, and the rules of firing will be known when the positions of the different points of the trajectory in reference to the line of sight, are known.

By the figure 153, it will be seen that to strike an object at point-blank distance (B G), the piece must be aimed directly at it. If the Object is within point-blank range, as at P, the piece must be aimed below it, a distance P M'=P M, the height of the trajectory above the line of sight at that distance; otherwise, the shot would strike too high by that much. On the contrary, if the object is beyond point-blank range, as at Q, the piece must be aimed above it a distance Q N'= QN, the distance of the trajectory below the line of sight at that distance; otherwise, the shot, after cutting the line of sight at G, would strike too low by the distance QN.

The elevations and depressions of the trajectory are measured on the vertical lines passing through the points to be struck.

When the line of sight does not meet the trajectory, the piece must always be aimed above the point to be struck, a distance equal to the depression of the trajectory at that point. When the angle of sight increases, the segment of the trajectory E'T H above the new line of sight K H becomes greater; for the ball thrown under a greater angle must go farther, and the new point-blank, H, ought to be more distant than the first one, G.

As sighting above or below the mark is liable to many errors, and very inaccurate in practice, any method which will enable us to sight directly at the object, is preferable. This end is attained by the use of a breech-sight, or hausse (from hausser, to increase), which being applied upright on the breech, increases its apparent diameter, and consequently the angle of sight, giving, as it were, a new point-blank for every new length or division of the scale. On small-arms, these scales, called rear sights, are connected with the piece by a hinge, and when not in use are folded down so as allow sighting along the natural line of sight. The line obtained by using a, hausse is called an artificial line of sight.

Mean Trajectory .-- A knowledge of the trajectory described by a, ball is necessary in order to understand and apply the principles of fire. The curve may be calculated by means of an approximate equation; but it is better to employ this method in connection with the determination of points by practical experiments.

Points of the mean trajectory are obtained by firing from a stand, a, great number of shots as nearly under the same circumstances as possible. With the musket, great variation is observed in successive shots, and it is the instability of the trajectory which renders musketry firing so uncertain.

These series of shots are fired at different distances, and at targets large enough to receive nearly all the balls. The piece is sometimes fired from the shoulder, using a rest, and sometimes from a light carriage, on which the axis of the piece is placed horizontal by means of a spirit-level.

The piece beings loaded and fired carefully a number of times, the balls, instead of following substantially the same course, deviate in every direction, forming thus a kind of cone with the apex at the piece, and having its cross-section increased as the distance from the piece increases. This renders it necessary to increase the size of the target as the firing distances become greater, and in proportion as the accuracy of the piece decreases.

As there is no reason why the ball should go to the right rather than the left, or too high rather than too low, all the shots are more or less liable to strike at the proper point; so that taking the general mean of the hits at each distance, one point of the mean trajectory will be obtained. Upon the knowledge of the mean trajectory of any arm, the rules with regard to its fire are founded.

The target for these experiments is made of very thin boards, or cotton cloth stretched over a frame. Through a point in the centre, a horizontal and vertical line are drawn, as co-ordinates to which all the shots are referred; parallel lines to these are described at stated distances, to facilitate the reference.

The mean point obtained by this operation will of course be the more accurate as the number of shots fired is increased; and if the number is infinite, the result will be exact, as then all the chances of error will balance and mutually correct each other. The theory of chances, however, gives a sufficient approximation by using 200 shots at each distance. Those shots which strike after ricocheting, or do not strike the target at all, should be excluded.

The point of impact of a ball is the point where it strikes the target, and the mean of all the hits is called the mean point of impact, or the centre of impact. It is a point of the mean trajectory.

To determine this point, the distances of all shots above the horizontal central line are added together, and also the distances of all shots falling below this line. The difference between these two sums, divided by the number of shots, gives one co-ordinate of the centre of impact. The other is obtained by pursuing the same process in regard to the shots on the right and left of the vertical central line.

If the sum of the distances above the horizontal line is the greatest, the resultant point will correspond to a point of the trajectory within point-blank range. If the contrary is the ease, the point will be one beyond the point-blank.

To construct the curve from this data, an indefinite right line is drawn with perpendiculars erected at points corresponding to the different distances of the targets P P', &c., Fig. 154; and on these are laid off the different elevations and depressions of the centre of impact above and below the horizontal target-line; The curve described through these points will represent the trajectory.

Where this curve crosses the right line will correspond to the point-blank of the piece, and the distance of that point from the starting-point will represent the point-blank range. This supposes different elevations have been used in firing. If, however, the axis of the piece has been kept horizontal, all the centres of impact will be below the horizontal co-ordinate; and in order to find the point-blank;, the line of sight A c must be drawn in its real position, and will give, by its intersection x with the curve, the point corresponding to the point-blank.

The co-ordinates of the cent re of impact being known, the point itself is known, and its distance from the centre of the target is called the absolute mean deviation.

It results from what precedes, that the mean trajectory occupies the center of the cone of dispersion of the balls, and that the rules of fire, either for the direction or elevation of the shots, should be founded on the position of this curve.

For a small number of shots, with a, given piece, or with an unskillful marksman, it might happen that the mean trajectory would not be comprised in the same plane; but when the number of shots is great, and proper precautions are taken, as there is no reason why the trajectory should leave the vertical plane of fire, it will, as a general thing, be found in it.

It is evident that for each marksman, and even for each piece, there is a particular cone of dispersion; and that the more skillful the marksman and more perfect the piece, the less will be the section of the cone for each distance.

It follows, therefore, that the best marksman is not necessarily he who makes the nearest shots, but the one whose shots are scattered over the smallest surface, or have the least absolute mean deviation. In firing, those marksmen should be excluded who do not hit the target every time, or who lait by ricochets.

In order to simplify, a point of the mean trajectory is taken as the common point of impact, and the best marksman is the one the sum of whose deviations, measured from this point, is the least.

The Cones of dispersion of the balls comprise all the causes of error in firing, whether resulting from the arm itself; from the projectile and the resistance of the air, or from the want of practice or skill in the marksman. The causes of irregularity in firing, although greater in the horizontal than in the vertical direction, are considerable in the latter. They raise or depress the balls, and change the ranges to an appreciable extent. The general form of the cone of dispersion will present a curved surface, Fig. 155, which is concave outwards; for experiment goes to prove that when a variable cause acts an infinite number of times, the variations of this cause tend to neutralize each other, and we may then assimilate its effects to those of a constant accelerating force, acting in the same manner as gravity..

The separation of the balls is not in proportion to the ranges; thus, if the distance is doubled, the separation will be more than doubled, and so on. It is remarked that the cone of dispersion becomes longer, with equal deviations, as the velocity of the balls increases, or that the fire is more accurate as the velocity is increased; a principle known to ancient artillerists, who employed, for small-arms, charges much larger than these now in use.

From what precedes, it will be seen that the dispersion of the balls results from causes, some of which are independent of the want of skill in the marksman, and others dependent upon it; that the accuracy of a marksman cannot be properly estimated from a single shot; and that it cannot be affirmed an observed deviation is the result of unskillfulness in the marksman, if the deviation is comprised within the cone of dispersion for that distance.

The objects of instruction in firing are, to analyze the causes which are independent of the marksman, to determine exactly their influence; and to rectify those which are dependent upon him, by imparting to the troops a thorough system of instruction; and for these objects, the influence of schools of practice upon the efficiency of troops, cannot be over-estimated.

The ordinary hausse or breech-sight will give the proper angle, provided the trunnions are horizontal, or the line along which the sighting is done, is in the same vertical plane with the axis of the piece. For, if this is not the case, the line of metal, or sight, marked on the piece, no longer passes through the highest points of the muzzle and breech. It, however, always meets the axis at the same point, and will be projected on the vertical plane of fire in B' C', below F' E', Fig. 156, which passes through the highest points in the new position of the piece. giving an angle less than the one intended.

Supposing the left wheel the highest, the marked line of sight prolonged, will pass to the left of the vertical plane of fire, and the piece being aimed by that, the shot will go too far to the right, or on the side of the lower wheel. The amount of deviation will depend upon the difference of level between the two wheels, or in small-arms, on the deviation of the sight from the vertical, and on the distance of the object. Therefore, to strike the object, the piece must be aimed high, and. on the side of the higher wheel.

If time permit, the best reined with cannon, for the case just mentioned, is to mark, by means of a, gunner's level, the highest points of the breech and muzzle in the new position of the gun. The deviation in range is not so great or of so much importance as the lateral deviation, and the latter is completely obviated in large guns by the use of the Prussian or pendulum hausse.

In mortars, where the line of metal is always parallel to the axis, these deviations do not occur, for if the axis of the trunnions is not horizontal, the vertical plane passing through the line of sight, will still be parallel to the vertical plane of fire, and may be taken for it. So, that it is not necessary to have the platform of mortars horizontal.

To determine the length of the hausse for any particular piece, aim at a point, n, Fig. 157, a distance above the mark equal to the depression of the trajectory at that distance, and secure the piece in that position. Then mark off on a, line, A H, perpendicular to the axis of the piece, a point H in the same straight line with the highest point of the muzzle, B, and the mark. A H will be the height of the hausse for that distance. It is evident that the use of the hausse is equivalent to increasing the anglo of fire; for the greater the length given to the hausse, the more must the breech be lowered and the muzzle elevated.

The lateral deviation for any particular piece, when the trunnions are not horizontal, can easily be calculated. Take n, 6-pdr. firing at an elevation, by the hausse, of 3º, which will make the angle of fire 3º; call H the total height of the 3º point above the sighting point on the muzzle, that is = the height marked off on the hausse for 3º + the dispart.

l: H sin. ø ::D:x= (H D sin. ø)/l

Substituting in this the different values for a, 6-pdr. Firing at 3ºelevation, range 1,138 yards, and the trunnions inclined 20º, we have

            3.076 in. x 1138 yds. sin. 20º

x =   ------------------------------------------- =73.4 in.,

                         58.7 in.

or about 6 feet, for the horizontal deviation at that distance duo to an inclination of 20 º in the trunnions, or a, difference of level of 20 in.. between the wheels.

To get the depression of the rear point, ac, of the line of sight, it will be equal to H(1—cos. ø) = 2 H sin2 ½= 0.18 in., and the depression, y, at the distance of 1,138 yards will be obtained by the formula

                                 2 H D sin2 ½ ø

l: 2H sin2 1/2 ø ::D:y =--------------------- = 13 in.

                                           l

Windage.-- The diameter of the bore beings greater than that of the ball, the latter dues not travel along the axis of the gun, but ricochets along the bore; and when it leaves the piece, will do so in a direction oblique to the axis, and in a greater angle, as the last point of impact approaches the muzzle. This effect may take place in any direction, but is usually in the vertical plane of fire, increasing or decreasing the angle of fire, which is then called the angle of departure, sometimes 30' greater than the angle of fire.

These ricochets produce a rotation in the ball, which modifies, more or-less, the rotation which it naturally takes by rolling along the bottom of the bore. In striking, the point of contact is retarded in its movement by the shock and friction, whilst the opposite point being pushed forward by the gas, a movement of rotation from above to below is produced; and were the point of contact at the side instead of at the bottom, the rotation might take place around a vertical axis.

Any body projected through the air takes, naturally, a movement of rotation, around an axis passing through its centre of gravity. The sphere having its centre of gravity and figure nearly coincident, will be deviated less from its course by the resistance of the air, than a body of any other form.

Without the resistance of the air, the centre of gravity would move the same as if the body did not rotate; but the movement will be different in the air, in consequence of the great resistance offered by it to a body moving with great velocity. This resistance, estimated at nearly 98 times the weight of the ball on first leaving the piece, acts with more force a  the movement becomes more irregular, that is, as the mass of air struck and displaced, increases.

If a ball could be made perfectly spherical and homogeneous, the centre of gravity would coincide with the centre of figure, and the resistance of the air would be reduced singly to friction.

By examining Fig. 150, it will be seen on what principles the deviation of the shot has usually been explained. The upper half moving in the same direction as the shot increases the velocity on that side, whilst on the underside the velocity is decreased. Consequently the curvature of the trajectory is increased and the range decreased. And, as in moving from C to C’, the resistance of the air is greater than it is during the other half of the revolution, where the air is comparatively rarified, the shot yields to the greatest force, and the range is decreased. The deviation of the shot according to the position of the centre of gravity has been clearly demonstrated by using balls having a portion of the metal bored out on one side so as to make that lighter than the other. The light half being put above the range is decreased, and the more metal taken out, the closer will the shot fall to the piece.

By reversing the position, the lightest half of the ball, which is below, moves first, and the rotation is from below to above. The ball is then held up, and the range increased. By placing the light part to the right or left in the bore, the ball debates very considerably to the left or right of the plane of fire.

By another arrangement of the same apparatus, the effect is more distinctly shown by freely suspending a, rotating cylinder in front of the fan-wheel, when it is found that it is driven round in a circle, the direction depending upon the direction in which it rotates. The effect is produced in a much greater degree when the cylinder is made to rotate eccentrically.

When the velocity of the current of air is very great in proportion to that of the revolving cylinder, the direction of the vane, Fig. 159, is but little different from what it was when the cylinder was stationary, whereas when the velocity of rotation is only a little inferior to the velocity of the current, one vane approaches very near to the cylinder, whilst the other recedes correspondingly. This corresponds with what is observed in practice; for the greater the velocity of rotation of a projectile in proportion to its velocity of translation, the greater will be the deviation.

This unequal pressure on the opposite sides of a revolving body is explained upon the following principle in regard to the movement of fluids:

"When a fluid jet, endowed with a certain velocity, flows into a fluid mass of the same kind, the pressure exerted perpendicular to the direction in which the jet is moving, is less than would be exerted in that direction were both fluids in a state of rest."

To demonstrate this practically, force a current of air through a tube near a lighted candle. When the velocity of the current reaches a certain point, the flame will be seen to approach the current, and as the velocity increases, it will assume a position nearly perpendicular to the direction of the current, thus showing a decrease of pressure, which is still further decreased by increasing the velocity of the current.

Forcing the current against an immovable cylinder, as explained above, the decrease of pressure on both sides is shown by the approach of the little vanes, but the moment rotation is given to the cylinder, a current of air is carried around with it, which, on one side, increases the velocity of the impinging current, diminishing the pressure, and on the opposite side does exactly the contrary. All the phenomena shown by this ingenious instrument, are known to occur in the practical use of spherical projectiles (not rifled). In rifled projectiles, the same cause of deviation does not exist, as in them, the axis of rotation remaining always nearly tangent to the trajectory, the motion of rotation occurs in a direction nearly perpendicular to that of translation; hence, the pressure on all sides is nearly equal, and no deviation takes place. This, also, corresponds with practice, since the deviation or drift of rifled spherical balls is round to be almost inappreciable, although in elongated projectiles, to which this explanation of Prof. Magnus is not applied by the author, it is very marked.

Drift in elongated projectiles.-- Many explanations have been made with regard to what is called the drift (in French derivation,) in elongated projectiles, which is found by direct experiment always to take place in the same direction in which the barrel is rifled. That is, looking towards the muzzle, if the groove on the upper side of the bore curves towards the right, the projectile will drift towards the right of the observer. If the grooves curve towards the left, the projectile drifts to that side.

It has been proposed to rifle guns to the left instead of to the right, as is now generally done, in order to correct the deviation to the right, caused by the involuntary movement of the marksman's body when pulling the trigger, to which the drift was at first attributed; and it appears reasonably to suppose that this method of rifling would snake a piece fire more accurately.

Were the axis of the projectile to remain always tangent to the trajectory, no deviation would occur; since the resistance of the air acting always in the direction of the tangent, the pressure would be equal on all sides, and the only effect would be to lessen the range. But the tendency of the axis is to remain parallel to itself as the ball moves through the air, and it really makes a small angle with the tangent, the point remaining above the trajectory, and the larger portion of the ball below it.

The forward motion of the ball causes a pressure of the air against it, which resists the rotary motion of the lower part of the ball more than does the more rarified air in contact with the upper part. The ball, yielding to the greater force, deviates to the right, in the case of a ball rotating them left to right. This is M. Panôt's theory with regard to drift.

Although Prof. Magnus does not apply the principle explained on page 218, to account for the drift observed in oblong rifle balls, and says expressly that it is not applicable to them, yet with some extension it would appear to account for all the phenomena observed.

The axis of the projectile making always a small angle with the tangent to the trajectory, the points on the surface of the right half have an oblique forward motion, which, adding to the motion of translation, the pressure on the right side is greater than on the loft, where the motion of rotation is retrograde, and in a measure opposed to that of translation, thus increasing the velocity of the air along the surface, and decreasing the pressure. Under these circumstances, the projectile would yield to the greater pressure, and go to the left, but for the fact that the centre of gravity being nearest the front end, the rear presents the greatest surface to the action of the pressure; and that part is thrown to the left, whilst the point deviates to the right, causing the projectile to drift to the right. The longer the range, the greater will be the drift; for as soon as the axis points to the right, the resistance of the air on the left side of the point of the ball is increased, which will deviate the point farther and farther from the vertical plane of fire. This deviation is shown, by all the experiments in this country, to be greatest on projectiles which are without grooves; and although these grooves are in some countries, as England, rejected as useless, it is thought that their effect in diminishing the drift can be foully demonstrated.

They were originally placed on the projectile to act as the feathers of an arrow, offering a greater resistance to the action of the air than a smooth surface; and as the resistance of the air acts in the direction of the tangent to the trajectory, the moment the axis of the projectile, from its tendency to remain parallel to itself, ceases to coincide with this tangent, the air acts directly against these little surfaces on one side, whilst on the opposite side the resistance is correspondingly diminished, and the consequence is, the axis is forced back towards the tangent.

Now, according to the theory of Prof. Magnus, as we have applied it to oblong balls, there is no deviation unless the axis is oblique to the tangent; and after it becomes so, the deviation increases until these two lines become perpendicular to each other, when it is a maximum.

The axis always makes a small angle with the tangent, and as the effect of the grooves is to lessen this angle, the result is a diminution in the drift. This effect has recently been shown on a large scale at the West Point Foundry, in experiments made with a 12-pd. iron field gun, with the Heed projectile. When made perfectly smooth, the deviation to the right at about 2,200 yards was considerable, and was found to be decreased by turning upon the cylinder of the projectile two grooves similar to those used on bullets. The projectile weighed 15 lbs., and an elevation of 8ºwas used for the distance, with a charge of 1 ½ lb. Of powder.

In firing at great distances, when considerable elevations are used, the angle made by the axis with the tangent is large, and the deviation, by the theory, should increase, as the position of the projectile then approaches more nearly the position in which the difference of pressure on the sides is a maximum. Such in fact is found to be the result in practice; the drift increasing rapidly with the range, and as the angle of fall increases.

If the axis of rotation of a ball be perpendicular to the vertical plane of fire, and both the centres of figure and gravity are in this plane, there will be no deviation from it; but the resistance of the air will have its maximum effect in producing variations in the range, which will become greater or less according to the direction in which the rotation takes place. But this condition of things is very unusual; and the rotation which results from the construction of the ball, combining with that which it receives in the piece, makes the position of the axis very variable, and produces the greatest variations in the firing.

The projectile may deviate in one direction, and then, the rotation in that direction being destroyed and replaced by another, may cut the plane of fire, and deviate on the opposite side, describing thus a curve of double curvature.

It may happen also that, on the descending branch of the trajectory, the axis of rotation may change its direction, and the ball be thrown back to the same side of the plane of fire on which it first deviated, as is often observed in practice.

As the resistance of the air is the cause of the deviations in shot, the more this resistance is increased in proportion to the weight of the shot, the less accurate will the firing be; for the deviating force, acting upon the surface, remains the same for all balls of the same diameter. The resistance offered to a common musket-ball has been estimated at about 98 times its weight; and if we suppose a ball of the same size but only one-half its freight, the resistance which it, will experience will be 98 x 2= 196 times its weight; and the deviations of course be much greater.

A bullet half the size of the common musket-bullet, will weigh only 1/8 as much; and the resistance of the air due to its weight will be 98 x 8 = 784. But the surface of the small is only ¼ of that of the large bullet; and the initial effect of the resistance upon the small bullet will be (98 x 8) / 4 = 98 x 2 =196. Balls will then, experience more resistance on the part of the air, and deviate more, the smaller they become.

All other things being equal, then, the largest, most dense, and most perfectly-formed balls will be the most accurate in their fire.

The movement of rotation from above to below, which the ball usually receives in the piece, tends evidently to make the axis of rotation perpendicular to the plane of fire; thus rendering the fire more accurate, at least as regards lateral deviations.

The velocity of rotation, being much less than that of translation, diminishes but slowly; while the resistance of the air, being at least proportional to the square of the velocity, diminishes rapidly. Hence, the deviating influence of the motion of rotation is greater near the end of the trajectory than at first.

That the velocity of rotation in projectiles is often very great, is shown by the fact that, after losing all their velocity of translation, they are sometimes seen to roll on the surface of the ground; and if any object is interposed to arrest the rotation. that motion is destroyed, wholly or in part; and all the force inherent in the ball is exerted to disengage it; and it will be thrown to a distance sometimes of 250 yards.

The motion of rotation explains how it is that when two similar projectiles are thrown with different velocities but under the same angle, 45º for instance, the one which has the greatest initial velocity will have only an equal and sometimes a less range than the other, if this last has a greater velocity of rotation. The velocity of rotation appears to increase in a greater proportion than the charge.

Each point of one of these balls, revolving around an axis of rotation, describes a kind of epicycloid: and this motion necessarily modifies the path described by the centre of gravity of the ball.

If the axis of rotation coincides with the tangent to the trajectory at every point, each point on the surface of the ball describes a spiral; the deviations mutually counterbalance each other, and we have a rifled ball where the deviations are the least possible.

The eccentricity in balls and shells is very slight, never reaching in the former 1/50 of the radius.

For a long time the deviations observed in shot were not attributed to this eccentricity existing in the bodies; and when it became known that this eccentricity was the cause of the resistance of the air producing such great deviations in the firing, every effort was made to make the projectiles as near concentric as possible, with a view to increasing the accuracy of fire.

It was not until quite recently that this very eccentricity was made use of to increase the accuracy and range of projectiles; and it was found that these could even be further increased by magnifying what had heretofore been regarded as the cause of the evils—the distance between the centres of gravity and figure.

Experiment demonstrates that:

Placing the centre of gravity to the right in the bore of the piece throws the shot to the right;

Placing it to the left throws the shot to the left. When placed below, the range is always shortened, and when above always increased.

A 12-pdr., with which experiments were made at Metz, in 1841, by Gen. Paixhans, gave, with its ordinary charge, shot, and elevation of 4º, a range of 1,500 yards. An eccentric shot, with a cavity on one side large enough to reduce the weight from 12 to 10 lbs., gave, with the centre of gravity above, a range of 1,960 yards, being an increase of 460 yards; a matter of no small importance.

It was found that, whilst firing in the usual way, the mean deviation was 13/100 of the range; it was reduced with the eccentric shot to 8/100; and that the difference between the longest and shortest ranges with the solid shot was 276/1000; whilst that between the extreme ranges of the eccentric shot was only 153/1000 of the range. Thus showing a very decided improvement in the regularity of the firing, with a diminution of 2 lbs. in the weight of the shot. The lateral deviations are also decreased from 16/1000 of the range to 2/1000.

This discovery gives the means of increasing very much the accuracy of ordinary firing, either at long or short range. It would be very easy in the arsenals to give to the projectile, in fixed ammunition for the field service, the requisite position, and to indicate on the side of the sabot the positions corresponding to long and short range. So also with any projectile, a simple mark on the surface points out to the cannoneer, when loading, the proper position for his shot in order to give it the least deviation and longest or shortest range.

Wind.-- The action of th e wind on the projectile is another cause of inaccuracy in firing, and produces a greater effect as the projectile increases in size and decreases in density. Thus mortar shells deviate more than those from howitzers, and these more than solid shot.

With elongated projectiles the wind has a greater surface to act on, and produces a greater effect than on spherical balls, though sometimes in an opposite direction. Elongated rifled projectiles are sometimes found to work up towards a wind instead of being driven off by it.  This is due to the fact that the part of the ball behind, being the lightest, is most easily acted on, and being thrown away from the wind, the point is thrown in the opposite direction giving a deviation towards the wind.

The deviations arising from the action of the wind are very variable, and no rules can be laid down for correcting them. Practice and close observation of the results of firing are the only correctives.

The effect produced on the ball is greater or less, according to the force and direction of the wind. If it acts uniformly and blows perpendicular to the plane of fire, the effect produced may be assimilated to that of a constant accelerating force, and the trajectory becomes a curve of double curvature, whose horizontal projection is convex towards the wind, and the deviations will increase in a greater proportion than the ranges.  With small arms, the deviations are further increased by the action of the wind tending to throw aside the muzzle of the piece, especially when the trigger is pressed against.

Supposing the wind very strong (say 60 feet a second), and blowing perpendicular to the plane of fire, experiments show that firing at 100 yards the musket must be pointed on the side of the wind about 11 inches. The deviations increase very nearly as the square of the distance, so that the deviation at 320 yards is 11 x 4=44 inches, about.

The ball is not only thrown to one side by the action of the wind, but it may be raised or lowered according as the wind acts from beneath or on top.

When mortar shells are thrown to a very great height, they may meet currents of air which will carry them in an opposite direction to those near the surface of the earth, and the shells are seen to wind about in obedience to these currents.

Other Causes .-- The inequalities of the ground between the object and the marksman deceive his view, and diminish the chances of hitting.

When the inclination of the line of sight is very great, and the object within the point-blank, it becomes necessary to sight below the object, in which case the line of sight will meet the ground in front of it. It is difficult to select the particular point to be aimed at, especially if the ground is broken. Experiment shows that firing from one point at an object above, is more exact and easier than in firing downwards.

When a moving object is fired at, the line of sight must be directed upon the point where it is presumed the object will be when the ball has passed over the distance between the piece and the object. For instance, a horseman moving at a gallop (6.66 yards per second), perpendicular to the plane of fire and at a distance of 160 yards, advances 3.33 yards during the half second that the bullet is passing over the 100 yards. The length of a horse being about 10 feet (3.3 yards), it is necessary, in order to be sure of striking him, to sight 1 or 1 ½ yards in front of his head.

The Marksman .-- The greatest obstacle to precision in firing small-arms, is the recoil of the piece; the soldier frequently, after having sighted well, loses the direction by the quick movement he imparts to the piece by pressing against the trigger.

As has been already stated, the recoil does not sensibly effect the direction of the shot. The deviations therefore which result from this cause, must be attributed to the unskillfulness of the marksman. The principal object of instruction is, to habituate the soldier to being surprised by the explosion, by pressing gradually upon the trigger.

He is first taught to sight by placing hie piece on a rest, as a wooden horse or bag of earth, which gives him sufficient steadiness to enable the instructor to verify and correct the pointing. The visual ray should just graze the rear sight; by placing the eye too high, the angle of sight is increased, and the shot goes too far.

The men should be taught the mechanism and object of the hausse, and be instructed to hold their arms squarely, with the hausse vertical. If the piece is held so that the hausse is inclined, say to the right, the line of sight is thrown on. that side, and becomes so much the more faulty as the elevation at which the piece is fired increases. The shot will fall on that side towards which the piece is inclined, that is, in the case supposed, to the right. For the manner of calculating the effects of this error, see p. 215.

The men are also taught to take the easiest and most stable positions, either standing or kneeling; to sight and fire with blank cartridges, preserving immovable both the body and the piece. To habituate the men to press gradually on the trigger, they are made to fire caps at a lighted candle, placed about 3 inches from the piece. If the piece is directed properly, the jet of gas produced by the cap will extinguish the candle. After this, they should be made to fire blank cartridges.

Distances .-- The estimation of distances is a very important part of the instruction for officers, as they will direct so much the better the fire of the men they command, when they are well exercised in measuring distances at a glance. This knowledge is of great advantage to them in manoeuvering troops, as well as in time of war. Soldiers thrown out as skirmishers, will have a great advantage over an enemy if they know how to estimate distances with precision, for their fire will then be much more accurate and efficacious.

The men should be first taught to measure distances by the pace, in which they should be practiced until they learn, in pacing off a distance, to take a, uniform step of a yard.

In order to estimate distances by the eye, spaces ore measured off, and men are placed at points along the line to show their different appearance at the different distances. For this purpose the ground should be level; persons are then stationed at different points, and the men made to estimate the distances to them. The distances are then paced, and, finally, measured. In these different operations the men are made to notice the different parts of the body and equipments which become indistinct as the person is removed farther off. On a clear day, and with ordinary sight, at form 190 to 200 yards, every part of a, man's body can be seen; and, although the details of dress and figure begin to grow indistinct, the grades of the officers can be recognized at these distances. From 400 to 480 yards, the face can no longer be distinguished, but the head, body, arms anti movements, as well as the uniforms and muskets, can.

At 600 yards, the head and upper and lower parts of the body can be made out; and of the uniform, the accoutrements and white pantaloons only can be seen.

From 750 to 800 yards, the body appears of an elongated form. Extended arms can be seen in profile, as also the legs of men in motion. The uniform can no longer be distinguished at 900 yards; but the files can still be seen, as well as the movement of troops, and the inst thrown up by a, projectile ricocheting on dry ground. From 1,100 to 1,200 yards, the files can scarcely be distinguished, and the troops appear like solid masses, the movements of which can still be followed.

Stadia.-- A very simple aid in estimating distances, consists of a small stick, held vertically in the hand at arm's length, and bringing the top of a man's head in line with the top of the stick, noting where a line from the eye of the observer to the feet of the man cuts the stick, or stadia, as it is called in France.

To graduate the stadia, a man of the ordinary height of a foot soldier, say 5 ft. 8 in., is placed at a known distance, say 50 yards; and the distance on the stick covered by him when it is held at arm's length is marked and divided into 8 equal parts.

If the distance is now increased, until the man covers only one of these divisions, we know he is at a distance equal to 50 yds. x 8 = 400 yards. This instrument is not very accurate, except for short distances. A much more accurate stadia is constructed by making use of a metal plate, having a slit in the form of an isosceles triangle, the base of which held at a certain distance from the edge, subtends a man (5 ft. 8 in.) say at the distance of 100 yards.

A slider ab, Fig. 161, moves along the triangle, being always parallel to the base, A B, and the length of it comprised between the two sides of the triangle, represents the height of men at different distances, which are marked in yards on the side of the triangle, above or below, according as the object looked at is a foot or horseman. in order to keep the stadia always at the same distance from the eye, a string is attached to the slider, the opposite end having a knot tied in it, which is held between the teeth while using the instrument, which is held in the right hand, the slider being moved with the left anger. The string should always be kept stretched when the instrument is used, and the line AB in a vertical position.

It may be graduated, either experimentally, by noting the positions in which the slider ab represents the apparent height of a man, at different known distances; or it may be graduated by calculation, as follows:

Calling the base of the triangle A B C, b, and the height h, the distance of the stadia from the eye d, and the distance to the object whose apparent height is b, D, H, the real height of the object, x the graduation corresponding to any other distance D' and b' the base of the triangle aCb (Fig. 161), whose height is h- x, the similar triangles A O B, and F O G (Fig. 162), will give the proportion d: b::D:H and consequently d = bD/H.

In the triangles a O b and K O I; Fig. 162, we have d: b':: D': H and d = b'D'/H.  Hence b D =b'D' (1)

The triangles ACB and aCb, Fig. 161, give h:h- x::b: b', and b'= (b(h-x))/h (2)

Combining equations 1 and 2, eliminating b', and deducing the value of x, we have x= (h(D'-D)) / D'.

When x=0, we have b= b', and consequently D =D'. From the equation d=bD/H the value of b is found = dH/D which is the equation of the Ordinary stadia- It gives D = Hd/b, d being the length of the cord, H the height of the object, and b that of the stadia scale.

French Schools of Practice .-- In France, each regiment of infantry has a school of practice established under' the direction of the lieutenant-colonel. A captain is especially detailed as instructor of the firing, and is assisted by a subaltern from each battalion. Each company has a sergeant as the instructor of the firing, and an under-instructor.

Records of the firing are kept in each battalion, which are inspected by the lieutenant-colonel, who also presides at a monthly conference, at which the chiefs of battalions and captains are present. At these meetings, such portions of the instruction as are indicated by the colonel, are discussed. The captain instructor gives theoretical instruction to the subalterns.

The subaltern instructors instruct the non-commissioned officers of their battalions, the non-commissioned instructors and their assistants, and have charge of the firing records, and under the superintendence of the captain instructor, and the chief of their battalion.  The non-commissioned instructors have charge of the training of the recruits.

The lieutenant of the armament has charge of the preservation and distribution of the ammunition, and keeping the materials in repair.

If schools of practice for our infantry regiments could be established on some such basis at one or two of the large western poets, now almost abandoned, the results to that arm of the service would be most beneficial.  

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